Birth of A Nation :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Birth of a Nation: 1607-1815   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It has been said that the Declaration of Independence was more democratic and for equality and the Constitution was more for a republic that benefited only some people. The Declaration was idealistic the Constitution realistic. That 1776 gave us liberty and 1787 gave us order. Although as unfair as it may sound this seems to be true. After gaining liberty this country had to establish a system that would have order.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When declaring independence, the bulk of the people thought that would be â€Å"†¦to burn the last bridge, to become traders in the eyes of the mother country.† (Garraty 110). John Dickinson had stated, â€Å" ‘Torn from the body to which we are united by religion, liberty, laws, affections, relation, language and commerce, we must bleed at every vein.’ â€Å" (Garraty 110). The people were afraid to break away, they pondered â€Å" ‘Where shall we find another Britain.’ â€Å" (Garraty 110). Eventually independence was inevitable. There was a great mistrust towards both Parliament and George III when the colonists heard that the British were sending hired Hessian soldiers to fight against them in the revolution. The pamphlet written by Thomas Paine entitled Common Sense called boldly for complete independence. This reflected his opinions on George III, calling him a brute, and also attacking the idea of monarchy itself. à ¢â‚¬Å"Virtually everyone in the colonies must have read Common Sense or heard it explained and discussed.† (Garraty 110). John Adams dismissed it as something he had said time and time again. â€Å"The tone of the debate changed sharply as Paine’s slashing attack took effect.† (Garraty 110). A committee was appointed by Congress, consisting of Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and many more. â€Å"The committee had asked Jefferson to prepare a draft† that would soon become known as the Declaration of Independence. (Garraty 112). It consisted of two parts: an introduction which justified the abstract right of any people to revolt and described the theory on which the Americans based their creation of a new, republican government, and a second part that made George III, rather than Parliament, look like the ‘bad guy’. â€Å"†¦The king was the personification of the nation against which the nation was rebelling.† (Garraty 112). â⠂¬Å"The Declaration was intended to influence foreign opinion, but it had little immediate effect outside Great Britain, and there it only made people angry and determined to subdue the rebels.

Rose Madder- By Stephen King- Evaluation :: essays research papers

Rose Madder- by Stephen King- evaluation Plot Rosie lived with her husband Norman for fourteen painful and tormenting years, until she made the decision of her life, and therefor totally changed her life for all future times. Day after day Norman punched and beat his wife, who never could stand a chance. One damp morning in April she decided to hit the road in purpose to get rid of his evil fists. Totally unprepared for what the future might bring Rosie left their house with nothing but her purse, Norman’s creditcard and the clothes which she for the time being was wearing. She had nothing to loose. Her situation could hardly become worse; she was already in the kingdom of hell itself. Rosie brought out a few hundred dollars with Norman’s creditcard, before she took first best flight to the other side of the country. As she started experiencing her new hometown, eight hundred miles away from her husband, she met both kind and less kind people. Everywhere Rosie went she gazed over her shoulder in fear of spotting Norman. This Norman wasn’t a normal wife-torturing tormentor. He also was a cop who knows how to track people, after all that was his professional. If you read this book, which I suggest you do, you will see how things work out for Rosie. You will be able to follow Rosie’s new life as she makes new friends and how she equips her new apartment. One day she finds a very beautiful painting, but this very painting isn’t any kind of painting. It actually has magical powers†¦. I can’t unveil any more of the plot without destroying the readingpleasure, but there is one thing you should carry back in your mind as you read the book; the painting is the main element which most of the story circles round. Style and technique etc (dot four) â€Å"There is something inhuman about the way he looks as he comes toward her with his head lowered and his hands hanging at his sides and the long muscles in his thighs flexingâ€Å". As an affectionate King-fan I can assure you this is a typical Stephen King- line. After all he is the master of horror. Most recently I finished reading the King- novel â€Å"The eyes of the dragonâ€Å", which I have chosen to refer to in this case. â€Å"Flaggâ€Å" is the inhuman wizard who everyone is afraid of and not dares to face.

My Educational Philosophy :: Philosophy of Education Teaching Essays

My Educational Philosophy Education is diverse. Due to the various natures of knowledge and students, it is difficult to place my educational philosophy in one category. Each student is unique; curriculums vary depending on many factors. I feel that many educational philosophies are beneficial to education. The nature of students reflects many things including heredity, home life, and society as a whole. Through my experiences working with Americorps/Energy Express, I learned children from lower income families tend to lose three months of education during the summer break. The students never regain these losses. While lower income children lose learning, children from higher income families gain a month of learning. This demonstrates the importance of home life in the nature and education of students. When teaching, one must always consider the aspects that may affect the students’ nature along with the nature of knowledge. Knowledge is both relative and absolute. Literature is an example of relative knowledge. Interpretation of books or poetry depend on the person reading the material, the place where the literature is read, and the time period in which the person is living. Science and mathematics are absolute. One plus one equals two regardless of the time, place, or person. Acquiring knowledge, whether absolute or relative, is the purpose of education. Public education is important to improving society and the future. Like Plato, I feel education gives people the ability to think critically instead of being blindly led by others. As a future teacher, I am idealistic in that I hope to encourage students to challenge themselves, I also hope to encourage students to continue learning throughout life, and prepare for college. To accomplish these goals, I will incorporate pragmatic methods like hands on activities through laboratory experiments and problem solving into my teaching. This also falls under experimentalism. The Socratic method of small group discussions, lecturing, and questioning will be used to help students acquire knowledge. Using many methods will help all students to understand the material presented. Discipline will play an important role in reaching my goals for the students. I plan to use pragmatic methods also in establishing rules.

Destructors/the Lottery Compare and Contrast Essay

While the characters in the two short stories Destructors by Gramham Greene and The Lottery by Shirley Jackson had unexpected endings the characters varied in qualities, emotions, and motivation. Each story seems to reveal a surprising outcome and turn of events as their personalities unfolded. As the climax grew the outcome was not so predictable. In the Destructors the main characters were T (Trevor), the house, and Mr. Thomas (Old Misery). Trevor was the new recruit and was described as being very silent and reserved. The author begins to paint a picture of how Trevor’s life used to be. It stated that his father use to be an architect but is now a clerk as they have â€Å"come down in the world† (Greene). His mother had even viewed herself as being better than the neighbors. Trevor was very upset with the middle class and wanted to take his revenge and frustrations out on a nearby neighbor’s house, Old Misery’s. Starved with envy he concocted a scheme to destroy the house not just by vandalizing the property but by literally destroying it from the inside out until there was nothing left. It seemed as though no one really new Trevor and would have envisioned what he was actually capable of. The emotions, attitudes, and the behaviors of Trevor were intense as he was obsessed with destroying Old Misery’s house. His emotions seem to get out of control as Mr. Thomas ends up arriving home early and the rest of the Gang is ready to bail as the fear of getting caught presents itself. â€Å"Trevor yells that it is not fair. † This statement is very important as it now reflects and shows the drive and passion for destroying Old Myserys house. Blacke a fellow gang member agrees to stay and complete the tasks at hand. I thought that Trevor was very selfish for his acts. It was not right to destroy someone’s home due to envy. Later in the story he shows his compassion as he locked the Mr. Thomas in the shed and gave him some food and a blanket so that he didn’t starve or get cold during the night while they completed the job. The motivation behind Trevor’s actions was that he was upset that his house and lifestyle had been destroyed. Statements early in the story like â€Å"Wren built that house father says† reflects that T was in deep though regarding Old Misery’s house. At first the text didn’t reveal his thought and actions but as the story was told his actions were known. There are various events in the story that make you question his motivation as they find Old Misery’s money. Blacke asked Trevor was he going to steal and he says no that they were not thieves and end up burning it. It’s odd that you can view taking money as a thief but not find fault in destroying someone’s home. The fact that he even burned Old Misery’s money depicted this overwhelming need for Old Misery to experience the financial strain that he and his family was experiencing. Unlike the Destructors who had only a few characters there were many characters that made a brief appearance in the story. The author really didn’t go into great detail regarding one individual but provides just enough to set the foundation of each character. The main characters of this short story were Tessie Hutchens and The Lottery. Tessie Hutchens played a major role as I felt she was the protagonist in the story. Tessie stands out from the beginning as she arrives late to the Lottery. The fact that she was doing house work and almost forgot what day it was shows that she had very little concern. The emotions, attitudes, and the behaviors of that of the Lottery were very similar to that of the Destructors. The community carried out this horrible tradition without a second thought. Tessie was very selfish as she was willing to sacrifice her family to save herself. Everyone was well aware of the rules and regulations of this traditional event. Bill Hutchinson selected the slip of paper that would put his family in the drawing for the Lottery. But once Tess had won the Lottery she goes into a rampage and panics stating â€Å"You didn’t give him enough time to take any paper he wanted. I saw you. It wasn’t fair! † She demanded a recount and gave various excuses why they should start over. During her outrage and panic she goes as far as to suggest that her daughter and son in law should be included in the Hutchinson family. The proctor of this event states â€Å"Daughters draw with their husbands’ families, Tessie, and that â€Å"You know that as well as anyone else. † It’s odd that she didn’t think enough of the Lottery to show up on time but now that she has won the Lottery it’s a different story. At first glance you couldn’t tell the motivation of Tess. As it wasn’t clear as to what the Lottery was. At first the story had a sense of calmness by all involved It wasn’t until the end of the story that it was revealed what the lottery actually meant.. The fact that Tess was protesting the matter showed that it could not be a good thing. Her panic was created in the fear of her being stoned to death. She was also willing to break a tradition that had been conducted for over 76 years because she had won. As long as she didn’t win the lottery she had very little concern. But in the end everyone around her was eager to carry out the tradition and get on with their day. The reasons of this tradition were never revealed but it was conveyed that this was something that was carried out every year without a second thought. Both of these stories carried very unbelievable and disturbing situations. In some ways they were alike and in others very different. In the destructors it was a bit concerning that a young boy could have so much anger towards a house and be mad because of his situation. As a result he then passed on that anger and resentment to a fellow neighbor. The character Trevor seemed to not think about anyone else but himself. The story left me feeling sorry for Mr. Thomas as he now had no house and money. In the Lottery its questionable on how so many people could go along with such a horrible tradition and the lack that no one would even question the validly of it. It also showed that Tess was very selfish as she was willing to sacrifice anyone but herself. It makes you wonder how a mother could even fathom to put their child in their place for such a heinous act. In the end this reveals a scary side of human nature.

Ethics in Decision Making Essay

Decision making or the process of choosing among alternatives is practiced by almost all individuals (Mingst, 2001). In almost every situation people is faced with the idea of making decisions whether it is as simple as choosing what clothes to buy up to life changing choices like deciding on a particular career path. This kind of act is not always as simple as it looks like especially when decisions are perceived according to particular factors that affect it. The choices that a person made are often influenced by many factors and one of which is the idea of ethics. Ethics is a set of standards that directs an individual on how to act in certain situations. The idea of ethics is often confused with feelings, law, religion, science, and cultural norms. These concepts influenced ethics in one way or another but these are not synonymous with it. Ethical standards are derived from five sources namely: Utilitarian Approach, Rights Approach, Fairness or Justice Approach, Common Good Approach, and Virtue Approach (Santa Clara University, 2007). The Utilitarian Approach emphasizes the idea that ethical action gives greater good and minimal harm. This approach is after the results of particular decisions that it should strived to give more advantageous effects rather than adverse consequences. A good example of this is ethics in corporation that aim to produce more beneficial results for everyone in the company (Santa Clara University, 2007). The Rights Approach is a source of ethical standards that gives high regards in respecting and protecting the moral rights of those people concern. This can be rooted from the idea that the very essence of an individual’s humanity that enables him/her to make decisions for oneself entitled each one of them to a sense of dignity. Based on this dignity, their rights as individuals should be given due importance. These rights also come with its corresponding duties and one of which is to respect the rights of other people as well (Santa Clara University, 2007). The Fairness or Justice Approach is based on the arguments of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers that â€Å"all equals should be treated equally†. Ethical actions should treat individuals equally but if there is inequality then there should be a defensible standard as to such. A corporate environment is a best example of such approach because workers are paid according to their productivity and contribution to the company, which is perceived as fair. However, there is contention when it comes to the CEOs of companies because their salary is many times larger than the others which make such disparity unfair for some (Santa Clara University, 2007). The Common Good Approach gives value in the importance of life. They believe that the very idea of life is good which is why ethical actions should contribute to the well-being of that life. The intermingling of societal relationships as well as the respect and care for others especially the marginalized are emphasized. Furthermore, this approach also highlights the importance of conditions that bring common good (Santa Clara University, 2007). The Virtue Approach is considered as a very ancient way of looking at ethical actions. Certain virtues are to be followed in order to attain the full development of human beings. These virtues are needed in order to reach the full potential of ones character. Questions like â€Å"What kind of person will I become if I do this? † or â€Å"is this action consistent with my acting at my best? † are taken into consideration in this approach (Santa Clara University, 2007). These aforementioned sources of ethics could be applied in the process of decision making especially with the individuals or decision makers that are involved within the process. Decision makers have various motivations and characteristics that affect their choices. There are two types of motivation namely the â€Å"in-order-to motives† and the â€Å"because-of-motives†. The â€Å"in-order-to motives† explains that a decision maker will choose a particular decision in order to accomplish a certain objective (Mingst, 2001). Ethics could highly influence this kind of motivation especially in terms of the Utilitarian, Virtue, and Common Good approaches. The Utilitarian approach is manifested in the â€Å"in-order-to motives† because if an individual will make a decision based on an objective of producing more good rather than harm then it already fulfils an ethical action in the Utilitarian perspective. In terms of the Virtue approach, ethics is seen in the motivation of the decision maker when the choices made are based on an objective that helps the development of an individual towards its full potential. The Common Good approach also asserts ethics because actors are influenced to choose decisions that will bring about the greater good to the most number of people. On the other hand, the â€Å"because-of-motives† arises from the â€Å"unconscious or semiconscious motives or impulses arising out of previous life experience or inner values, interests, or drives of the decision maker† (Mingst, 2001). Ethical action becomes possible in the decisions made by an individual based on the ideas of the Rights Approach and the Fairness or Justice Approach. The Rights Approach exemplified the moral rights of the people that should be respected and protected. These rights motivate the decision maker to make choices that will uphold these values. Similarly, the Fairness or Justice Approach also influences the motive of the decision maker by putting in mind the idea of what is equal from what is not especially if such idea is something that the individual values or has interests on. According to the assumptions of the Decision Making Theory, a rational actor plays a vital role in the decision making wherein that individual is well-aware of the list of available alternatives and capable of calculating each option’s possible results and has the freedom of choice to select the one with the highest preferential value. However, the biographical knowledge of the decision maker has a crucial role in the choices that will be made. Factors such as a person’s educational background, religion, life experiences, mental and physical health as well as other activities could explain the interests and values of the decision maker (Mingst, 2001). An individual decision maker is already influenced by numerous factors that affect its decisions which make decision making for a collective entity of diverse people more complicated. A population would have various and sometimes conflicting interests and basically different decisions. In such case, the important factor for this diverse population to successfully arrive at a most advantageous decision is to acquire consensus. Consensus building is an important factor for the decision making process of a diverse population. Since they have numerous interests and motives they need to be able to arrive at a decision that everybody will benefit from even if it means having to compromise at times. In doing so, they also need an appropriate leader that would collaborate their interests. A democratic form of leadership is a good example of how the process of decision making takes place in a diverse population (Bissessar, 2004). The interests of its citizens are represented through party system as well as by elected political leaders. However, numerous party systems is still not that easy to manage which is why a rational and appropriate leader is still needed that would be able to make sound decisions for its citizens. The decision maker is the most important part of the decision making process. The motives, interests as well as the background of this rational actor are vital in order to understand the choices that are made. Being the case, ethical standards is also one of the factors that influenced these decisions. This also applies in the decision making of diverse population because they need consensus building in order to embody their various and sometimes conflicting interests. In doing so, it also need an appropriate leader that would collaborate their interests and implements the decision.Ethical standards and the other factors that influence the decision maker have a big part in the selection of sound decisions. References Bissessar. A. M. (2004). Globalization and Governance: Essays on the Challenges for Small Countries. North Carolina: McFarland. Santa Clara University. (2007). A Framework for Thinking Ethically. Retrieved 14 May 2008, from http://www. scu. edu/ethics/practicing/decision/framework. html. Mingst, K. (2001). Essentials of International Relations. New York: W. W. Norton & Co.

Procter & Gamble: A Company with Global Operations

Procter & Gamble (P&G) is a leading manufacturer of personal and home care products. P&G is an international company that operates in 40 different countries. This paper will examine the environmental factors that affect how effective P&G’s global marketing efforts are. These factors known as environmental forces include social and economic forces, as well as technological, regulatory, and competitive forces.Any business operating internationally is impacted by these environmental factors which affect how the company will market its product. Understanding how these forces impact its operations will help P&G understand the interworkings of the economy both globally and domestically and the trends that currently impact its marketing efforts, which will help P&G, create and successfully implement its marketing plan. Operating Globally:In this day and age, globalization has allowed companies to operate internationally. According to Panayotou (2000), â€Å"Globalization is an on-go ing process of global integration that encompasses economic integration through trade, political interaction, information technology, and culture. Globalization brings people, culture, and information together. Globalization has helped P&G operate globally because it lowers trade barriers and increases the dependence between countries for goods and services, which means there is a bigger market for the goods that companies like P&G offers.Globalization came about as countries saw that other countries could produce products better and cheaper than another country could (comparative advantage), so countries began producing what they had an advantage in and selling it to other countries. This trading of products became an accepted practice and eventually spurred economic growth. This caused countries and  businesses to begin operating in the global market because it allowed companies to tap into this greater demand and new market for goods and services, which would expand their custo mer base and profit potential. Procter & Gamble: The Importance of Demographics & Physical InfrastructureP&G knows that when operating globally the company needs to market its product, and this means you have to have a clear understanding of the market of people that will be using the product. This means understanding the people and their different cultures. Every country has a different culture. Culture tells a story about where people come from, who they are, and what is socially acceptable. Culture affects the way people perceive the world around them, and this means it will affect the way products should be marketed. A significant part of our culture is our background, characteristics, and demographics.Demographics provide vital information about a country’s people. Information about a country's demographics help P&G to determine the right people to market its products to and how to appeal to them in its marketing plan. P&G manufacturers and sells its products world-wide including nations outside North America, Western Europe, Japan and Korea where there is a growing demand for its products. These countries represent places with high populations of people who are aging and take care of themselves, which means they need basic household items which P&G manufacturers such as detergents and grooming products.P&G is well- positioned in the industry segments and markets in which it operates. P&G’s success is a result of its ability to adapt its marketing mix to the standards and culture of the country in which it operates. It does this by having a good understanding of the country’s demographics and its physical infrastructure which help facilitate the development and operations of its companies. A countries physical infrastructure helps marketers determine how products will go from the manufacturer, to retailers, to the customer. Going Global: The Effect of Trade Practices and AgreementsTrade is an integral part of any country’s grow th and stability. Trade is fostered by global economic interdependence and gives counties access to a  wider array of products and services. Over the past decade trade has become global; trade negotiations have expanded to include more countries and are now regulated by international agreements and the World Trade Organization (Boundless, 2013). Trade has created a global economic interdependency. Global economic interdependence illustrates the ideal that no country is completely self-sufficient. â€Å"There is a need for trade among nations for goods and services as well as the resources needed to survive and grow in the global economy† (Nebraska Department of Education, 2013, para1).This means that decisions made in one country will directly affect what happens in another country making countries more susceptible to economic problems. Although, trade increases a country’s wealth trade also leads to inequality which is why countries have trade agreements. Trade agre ements are negotiated by each nation who has their own interests’ in-mind, which means some level of protectionism to protect industries that are essential to that nation (Boundless, 2013). Costs of Operating Globally: Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977Any company with international operations is susceptible to a number of risks. These risks include complying with U.S. laws affecting operations outside of the United States, such as the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act. The Foreign Corruption Act was developed to eliminate the potential of bribery to foreign officials, thwart money laundering, and reduce corruption and restore confidence in the business system.When operating internationally, companies must abide by several laws and legislation on the local, national, and international level. This is because the company conducts business with other nations and this means abiding by the laws, rules and customs which govern the business transaction between the two nations. Furthe rmore, companies must also take into account that political systems directly influence international relations between nations.This is because each country has it own laws and acceptable business practices. As well as its own political system that determines what a company can do when trying to conduct business in that country. When conducting business with different countries it is important to be aware of its political systems as it determines where products can be marketed and  what laws must be abided by (Chavis, 2013).TechnologyTechnology changes the way companies operate and conduct business. Technology allows companies with international operations to achieve success by allowing them to be innovative. Technology helps companies improve its equipment and manufacturing processes and anticipating consumer acceptance. On a global perspective, technology allows companies to go outside the traditional confines of selling a product and enables them to sell their products virtually anywhere. Technology has influenced every aspect of business from increasing efficiency to providing access to information and changing how companies communicate with their customers. Social Responsibility, Ethics, & Legal Obligations:To be profitable companies must understand that there is more to staying in business than earning a hefty amount of money. Companies must also consider the social implications of their operations. This is especially important for companies operating in the global market because a damaging reputation can impact its sales domestically and internationally. Any company looking to stay in business must abide by the laws and legislation of the company in which it is operating. For example, P&G is subject to tax regulations in the United States and multiple foreign jurisdictions, and it is their responsibility to be aware of any changes in the laws and regulations of these countries.In business, social responsibility and ethics go hand in hand. A company tha t seeks to have a positive impact on society is usually a company that seeks to operate responsibly and in doing so the company upholds the highest moral and ethical standards. Ethics help ensure that companies use good business practices in its operations and help companies fulfill its social responsibility to help improve the lives of its people.For P&G social responsibility and ethics drive the company. P&G is in the business of â€Å"providing products and services of superior quality and value that improve the lives of the world’s consumers, now and for generations to come† (P&G, 2013, para.2). P&G believes that by being socially responsible, and ethical its â€Å"consumers will reward P&G with leadership sales, profit and value  creation, allowing our people, our shareholders, and the communities in which we live and work to prosper† (P&G, 2013). ConclusionInternational companies understand that success is not just creating an appealing marketing campaig n. To be successful companies have to plan extensively and have a good understanding of the global market. To market a product internationally companies must examine and plan for the environmental factors that influence how effective their global marketing efforts are. In doing so, the company will effectively reach its new market of customers and create a unique position in the minds of its customer which creates brand loyalty, generates sales, and increase profit potential.

Iqbal’s Theory of Knowledge Essay

Iqbal cannot be classed under any of the three schools of philosophical thought: the empiricist, the rationalist or the intuitionist. In his theory of knowledge, sense perception, reason and intuition, all are combined in an organic whole. He knew full well that light from one direction alone could not illumine the whole of reality in all its manifestations. The ontological problem needs to be approached from all angles, scientific and religious, in order to secure some articulate, luminous and well-established grounds. It is in the light of this view that he advances his theory of knowledge, which promises both direct evidence and indirect experience of God or Reality—the former by intuition or immediate experience and the latter by reflective thought. Rationalism, though not admired, is not wholly condemned and discarded by him. On the contrary, according to him, if rationalism is not divorced from concrete reality, it represents truth. This is visible from his own attitude and is also betrayed by his admiration for prophets and mystics and non-mystic rationalists, whose quest and yearning for a coherent system of ideas resting on a rational foundation and rendering religion more secure and fruitful is well-known[1]. He admits and justifies the metaphysical methods. In his words, â€Å"Now since the transformation and guidance of man’s inner and outer life is the essential aim of religion, it is obvious that the religious truths which it embodies must not remain unsettled. No one would hazard action on the basis of doubtful principles of conduct. Indeed, in view of its function, religion stands in greater need of rational foundation of its ultimate principles than even the dogmas of science. Science may even ignore a rational metaphysics; indeed it has ignored it so far. Religion can hardly afford to ignore the search for a reconciliation of the opposition of experience and justification of the environment in which humanity finds itself. â€Å"[2] But rationalism, as preached by Iqbal, is not based upon logical categories or mere abstract representations. Born of and nursed in the realism of purely abstract ideas it is not divorced from concrete, reality. It has a definite function to perform which should not, however, be over-emphasised to the detriment of other knowledge-yielding elements—at the expense of sense experience and other sources of knowledge. Thus, while Iqbal embraces rationalism, he is not prepared to justify it at the cost of sense experience. Abstract thinking apart from the latter is of no consequence and even dangerous. He criticises Socrates, Plato, Mu’tazilites and other thinkers for avoiding visible reality as unreliable and misleading. Socrates restricts the field of inquiry to the human problems particularly to morality. â€Å"Trees†, he says, â€Å"can teach me nothing. † Even within the human field he believes knowledge is possible only through concepts. [3] Only reason could give true and ultimate know-ledge; sensation gives only imagination or at the most belief. Plato also accuses sense-perception as capable of giving mere opinion and not real knowledge. He rests all knowledge upon pure reason and weaves the whole fabric of Supreme and Ultimate Reality out of ideas, taken as Eternal and Really Real. This attitude towards sense-perception is not without a parallel in the subsequent thought. Ibn Rushd and Al-Ghazali, the former while defending and the latter while attacking Greek Philosophy, have troddden the same path as far as the avoidance of empirical reality is concerned. Iqbal attacks Ibn Rushd as well as Al-Ghazali. He contends that Ibn Rushd, through his doctrine of Immortality of the Active Intellect, takes a view opposed to what the Qur’an has to say about the value and destiny of the human ego, and thus obscures man’s vision of himself, his God and his world. Similarly, Al-Ghazali’s philosophical scepticism is held by him as an unsafe basis for religion; it is also not wholly justified by the spirit of the Qur’an[4]. All this shows that Iqbal is in favour of taking full congnizance of the visible and concrete reality. He does not encourage man’s contemplative spirit to the extent that it may lead to his withdrawal from the world of matter, which. with its tempora. flux and shifting phenomena, is organically related to Ultimate Reality. Hence, for the purposes of knowledge, it is entirely inconceivable to turn away from the material world and to withdraw into a purely contemplative circuit. There is no possibility of complete separation or independence of thought from concrete experience. On the contrary, one should take his start from here because it is the mental comprehension of the concrete that makes it possible for the intellect of man to pass beyond the concrete. [5] He invites us to take account of and to be fully awake to the material phenomena with all their passing and changing scenes and sights—heaven and earth, sun and stars, clouds and mountains, deserts and oceans. They are the signs of the Ultimate Reality and it is the duty of- one to reflect on these signs and not to pass by them as if one is like the deaf and the blind, for one who does not see these signs in this life will remain blind to the realities of the life to come. [7] They are the manifestations of Divine Effulgence and reflective observation into their ultimate nature reveals the secret of Divine Reality[8]. As a matter of fact, Iqbal takes an eclectic view of the whole question. He preaches neither reason nor sense-perception exclusively. Sensation being a chaotic jumble, upholds Iqbal, cannot lead to knowledge. It is reason that imparts harmony, organisation and coherence to this chaotic jumble and moulds it into a knowledge-yielding pattern. He pleads for reflective observation and scientific experiment. He takes full advantage of modern empirical science, though he never stops short at the visible aspect of Reality as the last word in the realm of existence. The sensible Reality is only a symbol of the Ultimate Reality, and the empirical attitude would bring us into contact with it. Qur’an also takes both the conceptual and non-conceptual attitude towards existence. It recognizes the rationalistic attitude as the cause of the superiority of man over angels, and goes on to say that man has the ability to name things which endows him with the power of capturing them intellectually and thereby rising in the level of existence. But concepts here are not abstract logical entities. They are based on facts of sensation and are indissolubly united with the sensible and observable aspect of Reality. In other words, the knowledge of things is described by Qur’an as the knowledge of names. [9] Again, Qur’an repeatedly invites man to take acount of the physical phenomena. As lqbal puts it, the Qur’an â€Å"sees in the humble be a recipient of Divine Inspiration and constantly calls upon the reader to observe the perpetual change of the winds. the alternation of day and night, the clouds, the starry heavens, and the planets swimming through infinite space†[10]. Iqbal fully agrees with the non-classical attitude of Qur’an and develops his own theory in consonance with it. Qur’an has a place for both metaphysics and empirical sciences. And it is through metaphysical search-light that Iqbal examines scientific researches and develops his own theory. But Iqbal is fully alive to the limitations and short comings of knowledge gained through the normal channels. Firstly, scientific investigation and analytic thought have inherent limitations which are unavoidable. Scientific analysis is never complete and exhaustive in its nature. Reality is an organic whole. Its parts are united by vital internal connections. This underlying relationship confers a wholeness in the diversities and pluralities. Analysis would select a part of reality which, when taken apart, would become lifeless, shorn of the qualities it has by virtue of its integral position within a whole. It is rendered meaningless apart from its relations, as a part separated from its pattern, a single dot or line taken out from the whole picture. Besides, analysis because of the immense complexity of its object can never attain ideal completeness. The ideal analysis involves the description of all the constitutive elements of a subject. It fails if any single element escapes notice or the units reached in the process are not ultimate. However, such an ideal cannot be accomplished, hampered as we are by our limitations. If we go a step further we find that the defect of analysis would also distort synthesis which is based upon it. In synthesis those elements only are combined that are discovered in the process of analysis. Thus the incompleteness of analysis results in the incompleteness of synthesis. It is obvious that an object discovered in this manner is not what it actually is but merely what it is mentally cons-trued. Even if the completeness of analysis is taken for granted, what we cannot afford to overlook is the importance of the vital inner connections underlying the whole reality, which are lost through the analytic procedure. Spaulding, who believes that the whole is nothing but â€Å"the parts and their properties and the relations relating the parts and the possibly specific properties of the whole,†[11] has tried to remedy this defect of analysis. He asserts that the knowledge of the parts when accompanied with the knowledge of their relations could give the knowledge of the whole. This assertion carries some truth in the mechanical realm but is futile in its application to the knowledge of an organic whole. The properties of the whole can be known from the observation of the behaviour of the whole as a whole; analysis does not disclose them. â€Å"‘[12] Iqbal has kept this fact in view and does not over-emphasise the role of the analytic method, though he assigns to it a legitimate place in the practical domain. According to him, empirical sciences give a sectional and fragmentary knowledge of reality which, though trust worthy, verifiable and even useful so far as the prediction and con trol of events of nature go, does not explain Ultimate Reality in its entirety. Glorify as they do in an artificial, selective and sectional process which uses concepts relatively applicable to different levels of experience, they fail to give the complete view of Reality. [13] It is an irony that our analytic thought first puts a veil on the face of Reality[14] and then endeavours to penetrate through it. Its path is zigzag and intricate; its approach and progress are gradual and slow. [15] Yet another difficulty besets the knowledge of ultimate reality. The subjective element, as the constituent element in the sensible Reality, has rendered the really Real unknowable. Kant goes so far as to reduce even space and time to subjective modes or forms of apprehending Reality; they are no more objective realities, empirical concepts or outward intuitions. They are merely the constructions or forms of inner sense, the necessary a -priori representations under-lying all outer intuitions. [16] The manifold of senses when it reaches us, has lost its purity; in order to reach us it has to fulfil the formal conditions and is bound to pass through the coloured glasses of space and time. â€Å"The thing in itself is only the limiting idea. Its function is merely regulative. If there is some actuality corresponding to the idea it falls outside the boundaries of experience and consequently its existence cannot be rationally demonstrated. â€Å"[17] Iqbal also believes that serial time and space are subjective and not objective realities. [18] But he disagrees with Kant in so far as the acquisition of the knowledge of Ultimate Reality is concerned. The Ultimate Reality lies outside the normal level of experience, inaccessible to sense-perception and pure reason. But the normal level is not the only knowledge-yielding level. [19] Though Iqbal is convinced that serial time and space ate subjective, he departs from the view that they are the final and inflexible mental forms determining and limiting all knowledge. He takes the view that our intuitive experience is not determined and systematised by space and time. When we dive within our own self and pass from sense-perception to intuition of the self, we perceive Reality, not as a concept or intellectual onstruction, not as a solid block or substratum underlying or holding together all experience, but as a dynamic and creative flow living in pure duration in which time is divested of spatiality and appears in its organic wholeness. However, it is no less true that this stage is attainable only through profound meditation, when the appreciative self gets the upper hand and all its potentialities are unfolded. It is now that the psychological experience expands into the intuition of Ultimate Rea lity—God. It discloses Ultimate Reality as a flux, a dynamic and creative flow that involves a progressive synthesis of various stages, in which life, thought and purpose all interpenetrate to form an organic whole. [20] Iqbal identifies intuition or immediate experience with love. Intuition or love would unfold to him new spheres of illumination, wherein unroll vistas of Reality comprehending Divine Presence itself. In contrast, the knowledge yielded by intellect is sectional, piece-meat and fragmentary because it is involved in the labyrinth of space and time. The knowledge through intuition is not imparted partially and byinnuendo. It is grounded in the deeper and higher self of man. It is incorporeal and eternal and leads directly to the incorporeal and the eternal. [21] Knowledge through love or intuition means knowledge through the heart, wherein we have change but no succession, pure duration but no serial time. [22] It comes with a surer step, has a higher and more profound air of authority about it and is born out of direct and immediate luminousness. But it should not be construed that intuition is antagonistic to analytic thought or intellect. Love and intellect both aim at the knowledge of reality and differ only in the courses they adopt. The intellect grasps and views certain parts of reality as abstracted from the whole; it gives only the temporal aspect of reality. Intuition reveals the reality in its wholeness and fulness. It is the method which takes things as a whole without waiting for analysis. Through a comprehensive grasp it gives the deepest truth. It forms that point of vantage which affords a perspective of the whole domain of Reality. Rather, it is the gateway at which Truth and Reality â€Å"rap and knock and enter our soul. Intuition and intellect together may be visualised as a double-edged sword in man’s hand. With one edge he invades the Ultimate Reality; with file other he invades the Universe. In other words, the ego has two eyes: with one eye he sees and approaches the inner and invisible Reality, with the other, the visible Reality. If the ego sees with one eye, it commits a great sin; if i t uses both eyes it reaches its destination. [23] Neither of them constitutes the exhaustive method or the only road to truth. Both should be employed and potentiated in the pursuit of exhaustive knowledge. They have a common source and are complementary to each other. Intuition is only a higher developmental state of intellect, and in order to view Reality as a whole it is necessary that we supplement intuition with intellect. [24] Intellect, when it is fused with love, becomes, as it were, illuminated by Divine Light; similarly, love when buttressed by intellect becomes more powerful and potent. [25] Knowledge based entirely upon reason and intellect, the intricate labyrinth of abstract reasoning, can lead to that articulation of beliefs which constitutes proof and demonstrated knowledge. But unless intellect is supplemented with intuition, this knowledge would become narrow, partial and lifeless and would lead to stagnation and pedantry. Intuition is its life and spirit; it is its â€Å"ruh ul-qudus† without which it would be reduced to a mere magic show, too impotent and crippled to lead us on to fruitful results. [26] Intellect, if not guided by love, becomes devilish or satanic—an evil force. It generates darkness and leads the world to blind power, chaos and destruction. Unanimated by love it is dead and lifeless, and its arrow, unguided as it is, flies without aim. 27] Let it be quickened and guided by intuition, love, yearning, and it shall yield knowledge par excellence—good, rounded and indispensable knowledge—knowledge which is power, encompassing heaven and deriving light from the stars, which contains the description of the whole existence and to which is related the destiny of the whole of existence. Intellect infused with intu ition gives celestial and divine knowledge. [28] Intuition or love is thus the very law of life and regulative power. It expands and enriches personality, and confers vision. At the same time, it is corrective of intellect and abstract thought, of science and common sense. If the above analysis is correct, the unqualified dismissal of the role of intuition or love in the achievement of knowledge as unscientific by the apostles of reason would appear to be highly unreasonable. Though intuition is a mode of dealing with Reality in which sense-perception has no part to play, yet it gives knowledge, which is as concrete as that yielded by any other experience. [29] Intuition has its peculiar characteristics which differentiate it from intellect and sense-perception. They can be enumerated as follows: 1. It gives the direct and immediate experience of Aboslute Reality or God. â€Å"God is not a mathematical entity or a system of concepts mutually related to one another and having no reference to experience. [30] Intuition gives the experience of God as sense-experience gives the experience of perceptible reality. And as regions of normal experience are subject to interpretation of sense-data for our knowledge of the external world, so the region of mystic experience is subject to interpretation for our knowledge of God. [31] 2. Mystic experience is characterised with un-analysable wholeness.  It gives reality as an indivisible organic unity, not as broken segments with many missing links. The reason is that it does not entangle itself in a sectional treatment of reality, which would allow only a selective study of certain parts of its visible aspects. This modus operandi is the de-light of rational consciousness, which specialises in analysis and synthesis as dictated by the practical needs of adaptation to our environment. [32] As for example, out of the innumerable sense-data in a room, our rational consciousness selects only that which on synthesis would yield us the single experience of a table. 33]In mystic experience which includes the cognitive element in its minimum degree, there is no possibility of such analysis. It is unique in so far as it ranges beyond these frontiers and brings us into contact with the total passage of reality, in which all the diverse stimuli run into one another forming a single un-analysable unity, and in which the ordinary distinctness of subject and object does not exist. [34]But we should not run away with the idea that mystic experience is some â€Å"mysterious faculty†[35] having no continuity with ordinary consciousness, as maintained by William James. 3. God or Ultimate and Perfect Reality is both immanent and transcendent. He not only permeates and encompasses the universe but also His domain rolls beyond it. He is the unique Other Self that transcends and encompasses the private personality of the finite individual Self. Mystic experience brings the mystic into direct communion with God, â€Å"momentarily suppressing†[36] his own individuality. He is for the time being submerged in Supreme Reality and loses consciousness of himself as a distinct and private personality. But he emerges from his experience all the richer for in this brief moment of intimate association with God he has perceived Him as an Independent Other Self and as a Concrete Individual. It is, therefore, erroneous to presume that the mystic state is â€Å"a mere retirement into the mists of pure subjectivity. â€Å"[37] Far from being so the contents of this experience are as objective as the knowledge yielded by an ordinary social experience. This may sound strange because we tend to believe that all objective experience must necessarily stem from sense-perception. But it is an extremely fallacious view. For, if it were true, we could never be sure of the reality of our social experience in so far as we know others as conscious beings. Granted that the knowledge of visible reality is based on sense-perception. granted also that the knowledge of our own inner and outer self is based on inner reflection and sense-perception, but when it comes to the knowledge of other conscious beings as such we are undergoing immediate experience—we are inferring the existence of a similar consciousness in them on the analogy of our own emotional states, which are exhibited by the two of us by similar physical movements. We do not tarry to work out or belabour the analogy in our daily lives; but the knowledge that the individual before us is a conscious being floods our mind as an immediate experience, which is further supplemented by his response to our signals a fact which gives completeness to our fragmentary meanings. We never entertain any doubt about the validity of this knowledge because of its inferential quality. In the ultimate analysis the mystic and the social experience are parallel to each other; and they- therefore belong to the same category. 4. The mystic experience is direct and immediate and hence does not lend itself to communication as such. it is feeling rather than thought, but like all other feelings it has a thought element which gives it direction and shapes it into an idea. it has two aspects: non-temporal and temporal. The non-temporal aspect is feeling, whereas the temporal aspect is idea. The non-temporal aspect is also not without a sense of direction. Feeling is outward-pushing as idea is outward-reporting.  Feeling is ever directed towards something that is feeling, some objective which transforms its characteristic instability into stability. It gives the direct vision of reality, But mystic experience, untouched as it is by discursive intellect, would not lend itself to transmission in logical forms. Nevertheless it seeks expression in thought and can be conveyed as interpreted by the prophet or the mystic who has experienced it. [39] 5. The mystic eperience reveals Reality as an eternal whole unbounded by past and future, as a single eternal now. nd establishes the unreality of the serial character of space and establishes the unreality of the serial character of space and time. But this state does not abide. It gives the vision of reality and soon fades away leaving a sense of authority behind it. [40] â€Å"Both the mystic and prophet return to the normal levels of experience; but with this difference that the return of the prophet may be fraught with infinite meaning for mankind. â€Å"[41] The path to intuition, according to Iqbal, lies through religion. The intuition of the self as a psychological experience is approach-able to all even at the normal level. But the higher intuition or the intuition of God is achieved gradually through a definite course only as the religious consciousness expands in intensity and richness. It consists of three stages, faith, thought and discovery. The first is the period when the individual, through his adherence to the unconditional command, cultivates self-discipline. Here we have the undemurring surrender to Divine Law without the interference of reason or logical demonstration. It enables man to find his niche in the set-up of political and social life. But so far as the evolution of man’s inner self is concerned it is of no consequence. This stage leads to the next where reason and rational understanding manifest themselves as the source and ground of the authority of discipline, thus basing religion on metaphysics or philosophy. This is followed by the third and highest stage where philosophy gives place to psychology and the individual develops a yearning to attain direct contact with Divine Reality. It is here that religion becomes a matter of assimilation of life and power; and the individual achieves a free personality, not by releasing himself from the fetters of the law, but by discovering the ultimate source of the law within the depths of his own consciousness†. [42] The Book is not imposed as something external but is revealed to a prophet. It is the period of discovery or intuition. â€Å"The climax of religious life, however, is the discovery of the ego as an individual deeper than his conceptually describable habitual self-hood. It is in contact with the Most Real that the ego discovers its uniqueness, its metaphysical status and the possibility of improvement in that status. Strictly speaking, the experience which leads to this discovery is not a conceptually manageable intellectual fact: it is a vital fact, an attitude consequent on an inner biological transformation which cannot be captured in the net of logical categories. It can embody itself only in a world-making or world-shaking act; and in this form alone the content of this timeless experience can diffuse itself in the time-movement, and make itself effectively visible to the eye of history. It seems that the method of dealing with Reality by means of concepts is not at all a serious way of dealing with it. Science does not care whether its electron is a real entity or not. It may be a mere symbol, a mere convention. Religion, which is essentially a mode of actual living, is the only serious way of handling Reality. â€Å"[43] Science deals with concepts, factual reality or the â€Å"causality-bound aspect of nature†, but the physical, sensible and external causality-bound aspect of nature does not exhaust the realm of Reality. The other aspect of reality is not less important than the visible one. It invades consciousness from another direction. untouched by rational thought dealing with the optically present universe. This broad path can be opened through religion only, because religion concerns itself with deed, which is the outcome of the constant attitude of man’s whole personality or structure to reality. The deed, â€Å"i. e. the control of man’s physiological and psychological processes†, is dynamically related to reality and prepares the finite self for immediate association with Infinite Ego. [44] Hence, religion, as lqbal would have it, is not a mere collection of dogmas or theological formulae: â€Å"Conservatism is as bad in religion as in any other department of human activity. It destroys the ego’s creative freedom and closes up the paths of fresh spiritual enterprise. â€Å"[45]Religion in its highest manifestation does not imply the life-denying and fact-avoiding attitude. It does not work as an external imposition on the free and spontaneous expression of human personality. On the contrary, it is the open sesame to fresh and mere fruitful directions to communicate with the Ultimately Real. It awakens and actualizes the level lying close to the normal level, directing one’s vision to the inner side of the self. It regenerates the inner powers and possibilities of the human self. It expands and enriches the fields of human thought and emotion. It unlocks fresh spiritual sources. During this period man gets the power to overcome his intellectual reconstruction and to penetrate the crust of causal sequence and spatio-temporal manifold. He comes into contact with the everlasting and eternal source of life and power. Here we have a picture of Iqbal’s theory of knowledge in which he endeavours to give us a clue to the Ultimate Reality. Whether the perfect knowledge of the actual and The Ultimate Reality, of the final nature and essence of things is possible is a very subtle question. Iqbal’s answer to it is an unhesitating, bold and optimistic affirmation. Reality can be known, grasped and comprehended not only in its partial and fragmentary aspect but also in its completeness. The great merit and virtue of his theory lies in the fact that he does not adopt and exalt any one method at the cost of the others.